Dr Zihao Li

  • Lecturer in Law and Technology (Law)

Biography

Zihao Li is a Lecturer (Assistant Professor) in Law and Technology at CREATe Centre, School of Law, University of Glasgow. He is also a Fellow at Stanford University, and was a Guest Lecturer at Trinity College Dublin. Zihao is qualified in both Computer Science (B.Eng.) and Law (LL.B.) in 2017 from Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, China. He also studied at University of California, Irvine, USA. He holds LL.M. in Intellectual Property and Digital Economy from University of Glasgow. He obtained his PhD at the same institution, where he delved into online algorithmic pricing and data protection law in both the EU and China, examining them from social, technological, and legal perspectives.

Zihao's research interests concentrate on the relationship between law, data and information technology. Recently, his research mainly covers data protection law, AI and regulation, blockchain and law, Internet and intellectual property, and electronic evidence forensics. His research has been published in top-tier interdisciplinary academic journals, conference proceedings and books, including Nature Machine Intelligence, Computer Law and Security Review, IEEE Communications Magazine, IEEE International Conference on Communications, and European Data Protection Law Review. He has also been invited to speak at several prestigious universities, including the University of Cambridge, Imperial College London (IC) and King’s College London (KCL).

Zihao is actively involved in professional services within the academic community. He is an Associate Editor and a member of Editorial Board for the journal Humanities and Social Sciences Communications (SSCI, AHCI-indexed, Q1), published by the Nature Portfolio. He also serves as an Editor for the journal Data & Policy, published by Cambridge University Press. He is a regular academic reviewer for prestigious journals in law and technology field.

At the CREATe Centre, Zihao co-leads the research theme on Automation, Decentralisation, and Platforms. He is also a co-founder of the Scottish Law and Innovation Network (SCOTLIN) and the founding president of IP Society at the University of Glasgow. Drawing from his interdisciplinary and international expertise, Zihao's research seeks to explore the most effective way for regulating AI, data and other technologies, ensuring the protection of individuals in the increasingly widespread application of big data, machine learning and AI era.

Research interests

Because of Zihao's interdisciplinary background, his research interests concentrate on the relationship between law, data and information technology, particularly:

  • Data Protection Law
  • AI and Regulations
  • Blockchain and Law
  • Information Technology Law
  • Internet and Intellectual Property Law
  • Cybersecurity and E-evidence Forensics

Publications

List by: Type | Date

Jump to: 2025 | 2024 | 2023 | 2022 | 2021 | 2020 | 2018
Number of items: 25.

2025

Li, Wenlong, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Li, Wenkai, Zhang, Yueming and Li, Aolan (2025) Mapping the empirical literature of the GDPR’s (in-)effectiveness: a systematic review. Computer Law and Security Review, 57, 106129. (doi: 10.1016/j.clsr.2025.106129)

Kretschmer, M. et al. (2025) Copyright and AI in the UK: opting-in or opting-out? GRUR International, (Accepted for Publication)

Stylianou, Konstantinos ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7171-8058 and Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2025) The Decentralized and Automated Economy: a research roadmap for the medium-term future. Working Paper. CREATe. (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.15065454).

Kretschmer, M. et al. (2025) Copyright and AI: Response by the CREATe Centre to the UK Government’s Consultation. Working Paper. CREATe (Zenodo), Zenodo. (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.14931963).

2024

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2024) Digital advertising and EU digital regulation. In: MacRury, Iain and Manika, Danae (eds.) Digital Advertising Evolution. Routledge: London, pp. 282-292. ISBN 9780367767730 (doi: 10.4324/9781003168485-25)

Jin, Guodong, Xu, Linyi, Zhou, Zihan, Shi, Qi, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Xu, Hao and Liu, Yinuo (2024) BeHarmony: blockchain-enabled trustworthy communication and legitimate decision making in multi-party Internet of Vehicles systems. Electronics, 13(16), 3219. (doi: 10.3390/electronics13163219)

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2024) The Dark Side of Large Language Models: Legal and Ethical Challenges from Stochastic Parrots and Hallucination. Data for Policy 2024 - Decoding the Future: Trustworthy Governance with AI?, London, UK, 9-11 July 2024.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2024) Mapping the Scholarship of Dark Pattern Regulation: A Systematic Review of Concepts, Regulatory Paradigms, and Solutions from an Interdisciplinary Perspective. Leiden eLaw Conference: Law and/versus Technology: Trends for the New Decade, 20 June 2024.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Yi, Weiwei and Chen, Jiahong (2024) Accuracy of Training Data and Model Outputs in Generative AI: CREATe Response to the Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) Consultation. Documentation. CREATe.

Zhang, Yueming, Li, Wenlong, Li, Wenkai, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 and Li, Aolan (2024) 中国个人信息保护经验研究的方法论反思——欧盟经验的启示 = Methodological reflection on conducting empirical research on data protection in China: insights from the EU's experience. Journal of Intelligent Society, 3(3), pp. 85-113.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2024) Regulating Online Algorithmic Pricing: Exploring the Synergy between Data Protection Law, Competition Law and EU New Regulatory Paradigm. BILETA 39th Annual Conference 2024, Dublin, Ireland, 17–19 April 2024.

Stylianou, Konstantinos ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7171-8058, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Thomas, Amy and Hadjicostas, Zenon (2024) European Commission Call for Contributions on Competition in Virtual Worlds. Other. CREATe.

2023

Eben, Magali ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1069-7609, Erickson, Kristofer ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1265-9123, Kretschmer, Martin ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4088-6569, Cifrodelli, Gabriele, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Luca, Stefan, Meletti, Bartolomeo and Schlesinger, Philip ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0078-9630 (2023) Priorities for Generative AI Regulation in the UK: CREATe response to the Digital Regulation Cooperation Forum (DRCF). Working Paper. Zenodo. (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.8319662). (Unpublished)

Zhou, Zihan, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Zhang, Xiaoshuai, Sun, Yunqing and Xu, Hao (2023) A Review of Gaps between Web 4.0 and Web 3.0 Intelligent Network Infrastructure. In: IEEE 9th World Forum on Internet of Things, Aveiro, Portugal, 12–27 Oct 2023, (Accepted for Publication)

Xu, Hao, Sun, Yunqing, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Sun, Yao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4391-377X, Zhang, Lei ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4767-3849 and Zhang, Xiaoshuai (2023) deController: a Web3 native cyberspace infrastructure perspective. IEEE Communications Magazine, 61(8), pp. 68-74. (doi: 10.1109/MCOM.005.2200481)

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2023) Why the European AI Act transparency obligation is insufficient. Nature Machine Intelligence, 5, pp. 559-560. (doi: 10.1038/s42256-023-00672-y)

2022

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2022) Protection of Intellectual Property vs Regulation of Algorithm: A Case Study of Online Algorithmic Pricing. 2022 Annual Conference of EPIP (European Policy for Intellectual Property), Cambridge, UK, 14-16 Sep 2022.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2022) Affinity-based algorithmic pricing: a dilemma for EU data protection law. Computer Law and Security Review, 46, 105705. (doi: 10.1016/j.clsr.2022.105705)

Xu, Hao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7237-7905, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Li, Zongyao, Zhang, Xiaoshuai, Sun, Yao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4391-377X and Zhang, Lei ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4767-3849 (2022) Metaverse Native Communication: A Blockchain and Spectrum Prospective. In: IEEE ICC 2022-Workshops, Seoul, South Korea, 16-20 May 2022, ISBN 9781665426725 (doi: 10.1109/ICCWorkshops53468.2022.9814538)

2021

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2021) Data Governance, Cyber Sovereignty and Sustainability: How Data Protection Law Should Promote Sustainable Development of Cyber Ecosystem from Chinese Perspective. 9th International Conference on Law, Language and Discourse, Zhejiang University, China, August 2021.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2021) Confronting with the algorithm bias risks, if blockchain will provide new chance or challenge from data protection law perspective? Dublin Law and Politics Review, 2, pp. 43-67.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2021) Data Profiling and Insurance Law. European Data Protection Law Review, 7(1), pp. 143-148. (doi: 10.21552/edpl/2021/1/20)[Book Review]

2020

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2020) Can Data Protection Law Protect Online Consumers Against Personalized Pricing? A Critical Review of Algorithm Regulation from Data Protection Law Perspective. In: Society of Legal Scholars, 111th Annual Conference, University of Exeter, UK, 1-4 Sept 2020,

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2020) Standardization of Blockchain—A Voice from Data Protection Law Perspective. In: 25th EURAS Annual Standardisation Conference – Standards for Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Innovation, June 2020,

2018

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2018) The copyright protection of video games from reskinning in China—a comparative study on UK, US, and China. Tsinghua China Law Review,

This list was generated on Mon Jun 30 10:40:44 2025 BST.
Jump to: Articles | Book Sections | Book Reviews | Research Reports or Papers | Conference or Workshop Item | Conference Proceedings
Number of items: 25.

Articles

Li, Wenlong, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Li, Wenkai, Zhang, Yueming and Li, Aolan (2025) Mapping the empirical literature of the GDPR’s (in-)effectiveness: a systematic review. Computer Law and Security Review, 57, 106129. (doi: 10.1016/j.clsr.2025.106129)

Kretschmer, M. et al. (2025) Copyright and AI in the UK: opting-in or opting-out? GRUR International, (Accepted for Publication)

Jin, Guodong, Xu, Linyi, Zhou, Zihan, Shi, Qi, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Xu, Hao and Liu, Yinuo (2024) BeHarmony: blockchain-enabled trustworthy communication and legitimate decision making in multi-party Internet of Vehicles systems. Electronics, 13(16), 3219. (doi: 10.3390/electronics13163219)

Zhang, Yueming, Li, Wenlong, Li, Wenkai, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 and Li, Aolan (2024) 中国个人信息保护经验研究的方法论反思——欧盟经验的启示 = Methodological reflection on conducting empirical research on data protection in China: insights from the EU's experience. Journal of Intelligent Society, 3(3), pp. 85-113.

Xu, Hao, Sun, Yunqing, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Sun, Yao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4391-377X, Zhang, Lei ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4767-3849 and Zhang, Xiaoshuai (2023) deController: a Web3 native cyberspace infrastructure perspective. IEEE Communications Magazine, 61(8), pp. 68-74. (doi: 10.1109/MCOM.005.2200481)

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2023) Why the European AI Act transparency obligation is insufficient. Nature Machine Intelligence, 5, pp. 559-560. (doi: 10.1038/s42256-023-00672-y)

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2022) Affinity-based algorithmic pricing: a dilemma for EU data protection law. Computer Law and Security Review, 46, 105705. (doi: 10.1016/j.clsr.2022.105705)

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2021) Confronting with the algorithm bias risks, if blockchain will provide new chance or challenge from data protection law perspective? Dublin Law and Politics Review, 2, pp. 43-67.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2018) The copyright protection of video games from reskinning in China—a comparative study on UK, US, and China. Tsinghua China Law Review,

Book Sections

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2024) Digital advertising and EU digital regulation. In: MacRury, Iain and Manika, Danae (eds.) Digital Advertising Evolution. Routledge: London, pp. 282-292. ISBN 9780367767730 (doi: 10.4324/9781003168485-25)

Book Reviews

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2021) Data Profiling and Insurance Law. European Data Protection Law Review, 7(1), pp. 143-148. (doi: 10.21552/edpl/2021/1/20)[Book Review]

Research Reports or Papers

Stylianou, Konstantinos ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7171-8058 and Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2025) The Decentralized and Automated Economy: a research roadmap for the medium-term future. Working Paper. CREATe. (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.15065454).

Kretschmer, M. et al. (2025) Copyright and AI: Response by the CREATe Centre to the UK Government’s Consultation. Working Paper. CREATe (Zenodo), Zenodo. (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.14931963).

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Yi, Weiwei and Chen, Jiahong (2024) Accuracy of Training Data and Model Outputs in Generative AI: CREATe Response to the Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) Consultation. Documentation. CREATe.

Stylianou, Konstantinos ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7171-8058, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Thomas, Amy and Hadjicostas, Zenon (2024) European Commission Call for Contributions on Competition in Virtual Worlds. Other. CREATe.

Eben, Magali ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1069-7609, Erickson, Kristofer ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1265-9123, Kretschmer, Martin ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4088-6569, Cifrodelli, Gabriele, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Luca, Stefan, Meletti, Bartolomeo and Schlesinger, Philip ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0078-9630 (2023) Priorities for Generative AI Regulation in the UK: CREATe response to the Digital Regulation Cooperation Forum (DRCF). Working Paper. Zenodo. (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.8319662). (Unpublished)

Conference or Workshop Item

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2024) The Dark Side of Large Language Models: Legal and Ethical Challenges from Stochastic Parrots and Hallucination. Data for Policy 2024 - Decoding the Future: Trustworthy Governance with AI?, London, UK, 9-11 July 2024.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2024) Mapping the Scholarship of Dark Pattern Regulation: A Systematic Review of Concepts, Regulatory Paradigms, and Solutions from an Interdisciplinary Perspective. Leiden eLaw Conference: Law and/versus Technology: Trends for the New Decade, 20 June 2024.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2024) Regulating Online Algorithmic Pricing: Exploring the Synergy between Data Protection Law, Competition Law and EU New Regulatory Paradigm. BILETA 39th Annual Conference 2024, Dublin, Ireland, 17–19 April 2024.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2022) Protection of Intellectual Property vs Regulation of Algorithm: A Case Study of Online Algorithmic Pricing. 2022 Annual Conference of EPIP (European Policy for Intellectual Property), Cambridge, UK, 14-16 Sep 2022.

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2021) Data Governance, Cyber Sovereignty and Sustainability: How Data Protection Law Should Promote Sustainable Development of Cyber Ecosystem from Chinese Perspective. 9th International Conference on Law, Language and Discourse, Zhejiang University, China, August 2021.

Conference Proceedings

Zhou, Zihan, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Zhang, Xiaoshuai, Sun, Yunqing and Xu, Hao (2023) A Review of Gaps between Web 4.0 and Web 3.0 Intelligent Network Infrastructure. In: IEEE 9th World Forum on Internet of Things, Aveiro, Portugal, 12–27 Oct 2023, (Accepted for Publication)

Xu, Hao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7237-7905, Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196, Li, Zongyao, Zhang, Xiaoshuai, Sun, Yao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4391-377X and Zhang, Lei ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4767-3849 (2022) Metaverse Native Communication: A Blockchain and Spectrum Prospective. In: IEEE ICC 2022-Workshops, Seoul, South Korea, 16-20 May 2022, ISBN 9781665426725 (doi: 10.1109/ICCWorkshops53468.2022.9814538)

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2020) Can Data Protection Law Protect Online Consumers Against Personalized Pricing? A Critical Review of Algorithm Regulation from Data Protection Law Perspective. In: Society of Legal Scholars, 111th Annual Conference, University of Exeter, UK, 1-4 Sept 2020,

Li, Zihao ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-9196 (2020) Standardization of Blockchain—A Voice from Data Protection Law Perspective. In: 25th EURAS Annual Standardisation Conference – Standards for Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Innovation, June 2020,

This list was generated on Mon Jun 30 10:40:44 2025 BST.

Grants

ESRC IAA & AHRC: Data Protection Evidence Wiki: Engaging Empirical Evidence for Policy and Practice £10,000

Modern Law Review (MLR) Scholarship

CSC Award for Outstanding Oversea Scholars

Supervision

Zihao is willing to supervise research students whose proposed research falls within his areas of interest, especially data protection law, AI regulations, and information technology law

  • Xu, Linyi
    Regulating Hallucination Risks in Large Language Models Across Their Lifecycle: Lessons for China from the European Union

Teaching

Information Law and Policy (LLM)

Artificial Intelligence and Law (LLM)

Additional information

Professional Service:

  • Associate Editor and member of Editorial Board:
  • Editor: Data & Policy (published by Cambridge University Press)
  • Academic Reviewer:
    • International Data Privacy Law (Oxford; SSCI-Q1); Internet Policy Review; Journal of Engineering in Medicine (SCI); ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT); GRUR International Journal of European and International IP Law (Oxford); Springer Nature Computer Science;
  • Workshop Chair: IEEE Global Blockchain Conference - 1st Workshop on Exploring the Intersection of Blockchain and Policy: Shaping the Future of Decentralization
  • Interviewed by China Central Television (CCTV) on behalf of researchers from University of Glasgow in 2020.

Professional Membership:

Guest Lecturer at School of Law, Trinity College Dublin

  • Taught LLM course: Intellectual Property Law and Emerging Technologies

Zihao Li

Dr Zihao Li on Bluesky Dr Zihao Li on Twitter